{"id":361,"date":"2022-03-29T00:34:32","date_gmt":"2022-03-29T00:34:32","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/histonaut.com\/?p=361"},"modified":"2022-03-29T00:50:16","modified_gmt":"2022-03-29T00:50:16","slug":"the-column-of-trajan","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/histonaut.com\/index.php\/2022\/03\/29\/the-column-of-trajan\/","title":{"rendered":"The column of Trajan"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
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The\ncolumn of Trajan is one of the most impressive monuments of Roman art and\narchitecture (See Picture 1 of Illustrations). It attracted my attention by its\nsize and superb marble carvings containing a lot of historical information.\nAnother consideration which defined my choice was the almost perfect state of preservation\nof this antique masterpiece. In the process of my research, I discovered that\nthe purpose of the internal stairway and even the destination of the\nunprecedented relief frieze winding around the column remain still unclear and\ndisputable. After careful study of high quality photos, drawings, plans and\nschemes of this unique structure as well as after acquaintance with numerous\nworks and comments by experts and scholars devoted to this antique wonder I\nformed my own opinion of the famous monument. In the present essay, detailed\ndescription of the column of Trajan and analysis of its particularities will be\nfollowed by my suppositions and conclusions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The\nmonument consists of three main parts: the base, the column itself and the\nstatue on its pedestal. The statue representing St. Peter and the pedestal were\nplaced on the top of the column in 1588, on the order of Pope Sixtus V.\nOriginally the monument was crowned with 6 meters high bronze gilded statue of\nTrajan which is lost with its pedestal. The column is made of 20 huge\ncylindrical blocks of white Luna (Carrara) marble. Their diameter gradually\ndiminishes from 3.67 m at the bottom to 3.16 m at the top, their height is\nabout 1.5 m and weight varies from 29 to 33 tons. One block capital of the\nDoric order is weighing 56 tons. To put it in place, builders had to lift it at\n35 meters above the ground which was a real technical feat for Antiquity. Splendid\nnarrative spiral relief frieze winding from left to right makes 23 tours around\nthe shaft of the column covering its entire surface. The relief is very low and\ndoes not distort the counters of the column. Its contents and purpose will be considered\nlater. The bottom of the shaft is shaped as a huge wreath of beribboned\nbay-leaves. Inside the column shaft from bottom to top a narrow (0.7 m) spiral\nstairway of 185 steps is winding from left to right. It is illuminated at\nregular intervals by 43 slit windows measuring at the outside edge 19 cm. x\n5cm. Sections of this staircase had been cut into each of cylindrical blocks of\nthe shaft before it was hoisted in place. After highly precise assembly of the\nblocks, separate sections formed a perfect stairway which is usable even today.\nThe total height of the column itself is 100 Roman feet or 29.7 meters. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

            The base of the monument is a cube with the side of 6.18\nm made of eight rectangular blocks of the same white Luna marble (See Picture\n2). The cornice of the base is crowned at the corners with four eagles (two are\nstill in place) holding in their talons the ends of oak-leaf garlands. From the\ncornice downwards the surface of the base is covered with reliefs representing\nwar trophies (shields, weapons, helmets, armors) taken from defeated Dacians. Above\nthe doorway, on the south-east side of the base, the dedicatory inscription supported\nby two winged Victories is located. Inside the base, in a funerary chamber on a\nspecial marble shelf, two golden urns containing the ashes of Trajan and of his\nwife Plotina were originally installed. Not only the urns but even the shelf\ndid not survive to our days. The height of the column with base attains 39\nmeters. The total weight of the monument is around 1100 tons.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The\nabove mentioned dedicatory inscription on the base of the monument (See Picture\n3) informs that it was erected by the Senate and People of Rome in honor of the\nemperor Trajan whose official titles correspond to the period from 10.12.112 AD\nto 09.12.113 AD. Unfortunately, the final portion of the inscription is\nseriously damaged and remains unclear, but we know already by whom and when the\ncolumn was dedicated. It was done by the emperor in person in 113. In such a\nway, next year, the 1900th<\/sup> anniversary of the famous monument will\nbe celebrated. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The name of Trajan and\nthe date of construction put the column in historical context permitting to\njudge about its purpose and meaning.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

         Marcus\nUlpius Traianus was the first emperor born outside Rome (in Spain), from his\nyoung age he served in the army and became with time a brilliant military\ncommander highly respected by his troops and civil population. In 97 AD, this\npromising general was adopted by elderly emperor Nerva and next year became his\nlegal successor. Thanks to his military talents, Trajan expanded his empire\nbeyond the Danube.  His conquest of Dacia\n(the territory of modern Romania) in 106 AD provided him with necessary means\nfor ambitious construction projects such as the harbor of Ostia, Trajan\u2019s Markets,\nBaths and Forum in Rome. The Senate appreciated the merits and virtues of the\nemperor by the title of Optimus Princeps<\/em>\nunder which Trajan remained in Roman history. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

            According to the latest researches the majestic column of\nTrajan which is standing today in the middle of a large square, originally was\nan integral part of the Forum of Trajan (the largest and the most splendid\nimperial forum ever created in Rome) and occupied a relatively small courtyard\nformed by the rear wall of the Basilica\nUlpia <\/em>(considered as one the most magnificent examples of Roman\narchitecture and built of marble of different colors), two libraries (one of\nthem contained Greek texts and other Latin ones) and the Temple of Divine\nTrajan (See Picture 4). The entire complex of the Forum was designed by\nApollodorus of Damascus (See bust on Picture 5), an outstanding architect and talented\nmilitary engineer, who accompanied Optimus\nPrinceps<\/em> in his Dacian campaigns and built for his army an impressive\nbridge on stone pillars across the Danube. He was also the author of Markets\nand Baths of Trajan in Rome. In his projects, Apollodorus skillfully combined\ntraditional building materials like natural stone and timber with bricks and\nconcrete. Most probably our unprecedented column was also the product of his\nprolific genius. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The\nmost striking feature of Trajan\u2019s column is doubtlessly its 200 m long relief\nfrieze winding 23 times around it (See Picture 6). The experts determined that\nit was chiselled after the column was erected starting from its bottom to the\ntop. The width of the relief band is irregular, upper spirals are noticeably wider\nthan lower ones. Systematic studies of the frieze started in the 19th<\/sup>\ncentury, to examine the masterpiece in detail first plaster casts and later\nhigh resolution photos of it were made. Thanks to this tremendous work, today\nwe can admire and analyse every one of 155 scenes forming the frieze. Scenes\nare wittily separated from each other by dividers in the form of trees,\nmounting ridges or protective walls. Some 2500 figures are shown in this epic\nnarrative. The frieze depicts two Dacian Wars: the first (101-102 AD) consists\nof three distinctive campaigns illustrated by 77 scenes and the second (105-106\nAD) includes two campaigns covered by 76 scenes. Scene 78[1]<\/a> symbolizing the end of the\nfirst War represents winged Victory writing on a shield placed on some support;\non both sides the goddess is flanked by trophies taken from Dacians (See\nPicture 7). Out of 155 scenes only 20 are depicting real fighting in the form\nof battles, attacks and assaults of fortifications. The frieze is mostly\nshowing Trajan\u2019s troops staying guard, delivering supplies, marching or\nbuilding bridges, roads and protective walls.  Successful completion of the first war is\nperfectly represented by scene 75 illustrating surrender and submission of\nhumiliated Dacian ruler Decebalus and of his dispirited troops. The second war\nended by complete occupation of Dacia, seizure and looting of its capital Sarmizegetusa\nas well as by suicide of Decebalus (scene 133 – see Picture 8) and his most\nfaithful supporters (Scene 129). Later, Dacia was transformed into a new Roman\nprovince. The frieze, obviously, represents real historical events. And this\nrepresentation is strikingly vivid, detailed and meticulous.   <\/p>\n\n\n\n

            Trajan\nas the protagonist of this heroic epopee appears not less than 60 times on the\nfrieze; his energetic face and imposing stature (slightly bigger than other\nparticipants but not superhuman) are easily recognizable (See Picture 9). He is\ncontinuously in command and dominates every situation.  Obviously, the main task of the authors of the\nfrieze was to show the leading role as well as virtues and merits of Optimus Princeps<\/em>. He is very pious and\nat the beginning of every campaign makes public sacrifices; we should not\nforget Trajan\u2019s function of Pontifex\nMaximus<\/em>. He is prudent and vigilant, that\u2019s why mounted scouts always\nprecede his marching legionaries. The frieze perfectly explains Trajan\u2019s\nmilitary strategy which consists in creation of extensive network of forts and\nfortified military camps providing efficient control of the enemy territory. Successful\nadvance of his troops is always ensured by construction of such necessary\ninfrastructures like roads and bridges; all surrounding forests which can be\nused by hostile natives for ambushes are carefully cut. That\u2019s why Trajan\u2019s\nlegionaries are often represented as skillful builders and woodcutters.\nStrangely, Roman auxiliary troops never participate in such labours but they\nalways precede heavy armed legionaries in all skirmishes and attacks. Seemingly,\nTrajan, as an experienced commander, prefers to spare his elite warriors for\nspecial occasions. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

            For historians, the frieze became an inexhaustible source\nof information: the relief is performed so meticulously that the slightest\ndetails of dresses, weapons, shields, helmets, protective armor, military\ninsignia, and defensive works can be distinguished. Different corps of Roman\ninfantry and cavalry are shown in action demonstrating various tactics, for\ninstance, Scene 70 represents close formation of legionaries called turtle in\nwhich large shields held by warriors over their heads provide efficient\nprotection against enemy projectiles (See Picture 10). Roman and Dacian civil\nand military architecture and building techniques are also widely represented\non the frieze. Scene 92, for instance, shows ceremonial opening by Trajan of\nthe splendid bridge over the Danube created by Apollodorus of Damascus (See\npicture 11). Huge stone pillars and complicated wooden upper structure of the\nbridge are clearly visible.  The author\nof the project is also present at the ceremony; Apollodorus of Damascus was\nidentified thanks to his well attributed busts. On scene 37 we can see a Roman\nmilitary hospital where a legionary and a auxiliary trooper are treated (See\nPicture 12). Roman naval architecture, shipping, boating and river crossing are\nalso well represented on the frieze (for instance scenes 31 and 79).  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

         The\nchiseled narrative provides a lot of information about Dacians: all their\nwarriors are represented bearded and longhaired, they have no helmets or\nprotective armor, their shields are oval. Dacians are wearing long flowing\nclothes and wide pants, the heads of the upper class representatives are\ncovered with caps. Trajan’s opponents are not so barbarous: they are well armed\nand their towns and cities are heavily fortified, for instance, their capital Sarmizegetuza\nresisted not less than three Roman assaults represented in scenes 105, 107 and\n109. Dacians are proud and freedom loving: many of them do not accept defeat\nand prefer death to slavery committing suicide like their ruler Decebalus\n(scene 133). Today, the frieze is considered as a valuable historical document\nwhich in combination with scarce and incomplete written sources permits to\nre-establish the entire course of Trajan\u2019s campaigns. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

            Art historians believe that the very idea of narrative\nfrieze derives from the tradition of creating large size tableaus representing\nbloody battles and heroic onslaughts which were carried by the participants of\ntriumphal processions for demonstration to Roman public. Such paintings are\nmentioned in particular in descriptions of triumphs of Vespasian and Titus left\nby Josephus[2]<\/a>.\nTrajan’s victories in Dacian Wars were celebrated by two impressive triumphs\nduring which similar tableaus illustrating his campaigns were, most probably,\ndemonstrated to enthusiastic Roman crowd. After the festivities triumphal\npaintings could be deposited in the libraries of the Forum of Trajan and later reproduced\npartially or completely by creators of our narrative frieze.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

 Some scholars recognize in the frieze marble\nreproduction of an illustrated scroll (rotulus<\/em>).\nSuch scrolls painted on papyrus, vellum<\/em>\n(calfskin) and parchment <\/em>(lambskin)\nwere popular in Rome. This antique version of modern cartoons most probably\nalso used a sequence of separate scenes to depict the course of events.\nUnfortunately, Roman illustrated scrolls and books could not survive to our\ndays. But some of them undoubtedly reached the Middle Ages and their tradition\nof depicting historical events in concise form was preserved and developed by\nillustrators of medieval chronicles and religious works. The best example of\nmedieval pictorial narrative is the famous Tapestry of Bayeux describing Norman\nConquest of England in the 11th<\/sup> century (See Picture 18). In my\nopinion some scenes of the chiselled frieze clearly remind by their\nconventionality (when a group of warriors represent the entire battle) of the\npictures from medieval chronicles which inevitably inherited some features of\nRoman illustrated scrolls and books. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Many\nexperts consider the column of Trajan as the first example of purely Roman art.\nIts size and design are unprecedented for a funeral monument on the one hand\nand its relief frieze is performed in realistic manner truly representing\nconcrete historical events on the other. The narrative is almost free from\nallegories so characteristic for Hellenistic art, only on three occasions\ndeities are shown. The very idea of a spiral frieze on a column seems original\nand innovative. Apollodorus\u2019s creation inspired numerous imitations. In ancient\nRome can be mentioned the Column of Antoninus \nPius erected in 161 AD (it was only 15 m high and 1.9 m in diameter,\nmade of red granite without any reliefs) and the Column of Marcus Aurelius  (176-190 AD) (made of marble, almost 40 m high,\nwith spiral carved frieze it looks almost like a copy of Trajan\u2019s monument)(See\nPicture 15). Among the latest imitations should be named the bronze Vendome\ncolumn in Paris (See Picture 16) and Nelson’s column in London (See Picture 17).\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In\ngeneral, the reliefs of the column are very expressive and dynamic; they\nperfectly convey the idea of invincibility of Trajan and his army. The scenes\nare realistic and truly reproduce human anatomy (muscles are perfectly shown), movements,\ngestures and emotions. The presentation is highly artistic and the hand of\nexperienced sculptors is clearly felt. Nevertheless, often the perspective is\nnot observed: the figures in the foreground and in the background are of the\nsame size. Representation of landscape components such as mountains, rivers and\nforests is forcibly conventional.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Most\nprobably, the narrative frieze is an illustrated version of Trajan\u2019s commentary\non his victorious campaigns – the so called Dacica<\/em>.\nUnfortunately, only a very small fragment of this work survived to our days. In\nmy opinion, the composition of the frieze was initially designed and developed by\nApollodorus of Damascus with following approval by Trajan in person. Reliefs\nwere performed by a team of highly skilled sculptors and judging by the\nappalling amount of chiseling this work took not less than three years. It is\nbelieved that the frieze was brightly painted and that some wooden or metallic\ninserts reproducing different weapons were fixed in small holes drilled in the\nhands of many figures. Completed marble narrative was certainly subject of acceptance\nby both its designer and its sponsor. In spite of dedicatory inscription\ntelling that the column was erected by the Senate and People of Rome, Trajan,\nmost probably, ordered and paid himself his funeral monument. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

The\nmain problem for scholars trying to interpret the meaning of the column is\ninadequate visibility of the narrative frieze. From the ground the viewer cannot\nsee more than six tours of the chiseled spiral; even if the buildings\nsurrounding the column in antiquity had balconies or terraces, from their level\nthe upper portion of the column remained practically invisible. Moreover, to\nread the spiral narrative, the spectator has to make tours around the monument\nseeing only one side of it at a time. Another factor reducing the visibility of\nthe frieze was the proximity of wide and high building of Basilica Ulpia<\/em> towering to the south-east of the column and shading\non sunny days considerable part of the monument. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

What\nwas the need to create this marble masterpiece which cannot be neither read nor\nappreciated by the public?  In my opinion,\nthere is only one logical answer to this question: the frieze was not intended\nfor the eyes of mortals. My guess is that the cubic base of the monument\nrepresents an altar from which a high column of sacrificial smoke swirling in\ntough spirals slowly rises to the sky (See Picture 13). It is bringing to\nheaven an unprecedented offering made by Emperor Trajan to the gods of Roman\npantheon \u2013 his best achievement, his victorious Dacian Wars which made his name\nfamous. The same sacrificial smoke forms a stairway for ascension to the sky of\nOptimus Princeps<\/em>, for his apotheosis.\nAnd Trajan\u2019s bronze guilt statue shining on the top of the column shows that\nRoman deities favorably accepted the generous sacrifice of Pontifex Maximus<\/em> and admitted him to their family. In such a way,\nthe relief frieze was offered to all-seeing gods and to please them no efforts\nand no means were spared. What kind of narrative could please Roman deities? At\nfirst approximation, it should be complete, clear, picturesque and well\nperformed, our marble frieze meets all these requirements. The internal\nstairway was devised exclusively for Trajan\u2019s consecration and nobody else was\nallowed to use it. It seems appropriate to add to this that from all the slit\nwindows of the staircase only the sky \u2013 the final destination of the regal climber\ncan be seen. It is not difficult to imagine the solemn ceremony in which Trajan\ntakes the stairs to the top of the column where he removes some draperies covering\nhis gilded statue opening it to rapturous looks of Roman public assisting at\nthe transformation of their beloved Optimus\nPrinceps<\/em> into a new deity. Officially, Roman emperors were deified after\ntheir death by special decision of the Senate in the process of religious\nritual called consecratio<\/em> which\nincluded cremation of the dead body and liberation of an eagle (sacred bird of\nJupiter) intended to bring the regal soul to heaven. Trajan was also consecrated\nin 117 AD, but it is difficult to say at what moment his soul reached Roman\npantheon because he died and was cremated in Cilicia (territory of modern\nTurkey) and his ashes were brought to Rome by his wife Plotina. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Optimus Princeps<\/em>\ninaugurated his funeral monument in 113 AD at the age of about sixty on the eve\nof his departure to a dangerous military campaign in Parthia. In this\nconnection, the supposition that our huge column of spiraling smoke is rising\nfrom Trajan\u2019s funeral pyre is not out of place. This experienced and prudent\nmilitary commander was accustomed to prepare everything in advance. It is\nbelieved that even the Temple of Divine Trajan was built by Apollodorus of\nDamascus before the monument itself. By the way, if my guess is correct the use\nof white Luna marble created full impression of billowing white smoke (See\nPicture 14) and there was no need to paint the narrative frieze. But at the\nsame time, it is easy to admit that Roman gods like humans preferred multicolor\nsacrificial smokes. It is also quite probable that Trajan in his role of Pontifex Maximus<\/em> ordered his wonderful\nmarble offering not only to ensure his future apotheosis but to obtain heavenly\nsupport for his forthcoming campaign against Parthia. It should be recognized\nthat Optimus Princeps<\/em> was lucky in\nhis perilous military expedition: in 114-115 AD he conquered Armenia and\ndefeated Parthians, in 116 AD he won Assyria and Babylon. Trajan was the first\nand the only Roman ruler to reach with his army the Persian Gulf. In 117 AD, he\nwas granted posthumous triumph and the honorary title Parthian was added to his\nname. The same year, his ashes in a golden urn were deposited at a special\nmarble shelf in the funerary chamber of Trajan\u2019s column. In 122 AD, the ashes\nof his wife Plotina in a similar urn took their place on the same shelf. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

In\nconclusion, it is necessary to stress that the column of Trajan is a unique\nexample of Roman art. This funeral monumentum<\/em>\nrepresents the apotheosis of Optimus\nPrinceps<\/em> ensured through offering of his Dacian victories to the pantheon\nof Roman deities. This offering is rising to the sky in the form a column of\nwhite (or colorful) sacrificial smoke bearing on its spirals complete\ndescription of the first (101-102 AD) and the second (105-106 AD) Dacian Wars. This\ndescription represents a superb 200 meters long relief frieze covering the\nentire surface of the column\u2019s shaft. The frieze performed with striking\naccuracy and thoroughness reproduces real historical events. Thanks to the\nabove mentioned exclusive features the column of Trajan is a real treasure of\nthe international cultural heritage.
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